Social Groups and Deviance Assignment
Social Groups and Deviance Assignment
Choose one of the following questions:
1. What did Stanley Milgram seek to test in his experiments at Yale University? What were the results? Do you think that the findings would be similar today? Why or why not? Thinking about the information shared in Chapter 2 regarding ethics in research, what are the ethical concerns of the study?
2. Do you agree with Emile Durkheim that deviance provides certain functions for society? What functions might deviance provide? In your answer be sure to describe Durkheim’s main thesis regarding deviance and provide examples or evidence to support your position.
The Week 3 Forum meets the following course objectives:
· Apply a sociological perspective to the social world.
· Analyze contemporary social issues using the sociological imagination and use sociological theories and concepts to analyze everyday life.
· Identify and describe bureaucracies and formal organizations.
· Describe deviance and social control from a sociological perspective.
Instructions for all Forums:
Each week, learners will post one initial post per week. This post must demonstrate comprehension of the course materials, the ability to apply that knowledge in the real world. Learners will engage with the instructor and peers throughout the learning week. To motivate engaged discussion, posts are expected to be on time with regular interaction throughout the week. All posts should demonstrate college level writing skills. To promote vibrant discussion as we would in a face to face classroom, formatted citations and references are not required. Quotes should not be used at all, or used sparingly. If you quote a source quotation marks should be used and an APA formatted citation and reference provided.
|
Points |
Exemplary (100%)
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Accomplished (85%)
|
Developing (75%) |
Beginning (65%) |
Not Participating (0%)
|
| Comprehension of course materials
4 |
Initial post demonstrates rich comprehension of course materials. Detailed use of terminology or examples learned in class. If post includes opinion, it is supported with evaluated evidence. | Initial post demonstrates clear comprehension of course materials. Use of terminology or examples learned in class. If post includes opinion, it is supported with evaluated evidence. | Initial post demonstrates some comprehension of course materials. Specific terminology or examples learned in class may be incorrect or incomplete. Post may include some opinion without evaluated evidence. | Initial post does not demonstrate comprehension of course materials. Specific terminology or examples learned in class are not included. Post is opinion based without evaluated evidence. | No posting, post is off topic, post does not meet minimum criteria for demonstrating beginning level of comprehension. Post may be plagiarized, or use a high percentage of quotes that prevent demonstration of student’s comprehension. |
| Real world application of knowledge
2 |
Initial post demonstrates that the learner can creatively and uniquely apply the concepts and examples learned in class to a personal or professional experience from their life or to a current event. | Initial post demonstrates that the learner can apply the concepts and examples learned in class to a personal or professional experience from their life or to a current event. | Initial post does not clearly demonstrate that the learner can apply the concepts and examples learned in class. Unclear link between the concepts and examples learned in class to personal or professional experience or to a current event. | Initial post does not demonstrate that the learner can apply the concepts and examples learned in class. No link to a personal or professional experience or to a current event is made in the post. | No posting, post is off topic, post does not meet minimum criteria for demonstrating beginning level of application. Post may be plagiarized, or use a high percentage of quotes that prevent demonstration of student’s ability to apply comprehension. |
| Active Forum Engagement and Presence
3 |
Learner posts 4+ different days in the learning week.
Replies to at least one response from a classmate or instructor on the learner’s initial post to demonstrate the learner is reading and considering classmate responses to their ideas.
Posts two or more 100+ word responses to initial posts of classmates. Posts motivate group discussion and contributes to the learning community by doing 2+ of the following: · offering advice or strategy · posing a question, · providing an alternative point-of-view, · acknowledging similar experiences · sharing a resource |
Learner posts 3 different days in the learning week.
Posts two 100+ word responses to initial posts of classmates. Posts motivate group discussion and contribute to the learning community by doing 2+ of the following:
· offering advice or strategy · posing a question, · providing an alternative point-of-view, · acknowledging similar experiences · sharing a resource |
Learner posts 2 different days in the learning week.
Posts one 100+ word response to initial post of classmate. Post motivates group discussion and contributes to the learning community by doing 1 of the following:
· offering advice or strategy · posing a question, · providing an alternative point-of-view, · acknowledging similar experiences · sharing a resource |
Learner posts 1 day in the learning week.
Posts one 100+ word response to initial post of classmate. Post does not clearly motivate group discussion or clearly contribute to the learning community.
Responses do not: · offering advice or strategy · posing a question, · providing an alternative point-of-view, · acknowledging similar experiences · sharing a resource |
Learner posts 1 day in the learning week, or posts are not made during the learning week and therefore do not contribute to or enrich the weekly conversation.
No peer responses are made. One or more peer responses of low quality (“good job, I agree”) may be made. |
| Writing skills
1 |
Post is 250+ words. All posts reflect widely accepted academic writing protocols like using capital letters, cohesive sentences, and no texting language. Dialogue is also polite and respectful of different points of view. | Post is 250+ words. The majority of posts reflect widely-accepted academic writing protocols like using capital letters, cohesive sentences, and no texting language. Dialogue is polite and respectful of different points of view. | Post is 175+ words. The majority of posts reflect widely-accepted academic writing protocols like using capital letters (“I am” not “i am”), cohesive sentences, and no texting language. Dialogue may not be respectful of different points of view. | Post is 150+ words. The majority of the forum communication ignores widely-accepted academic writing protocols like capital letters, cohesive sentences, and texting; Dialogue may not be respectful of different points of view. | No posting, post is off topic and does not meet minimum criteria for demonstrating beginning level of comprehension. |
READING CHAPTER 2
| 2 | DISCOVER SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH |
© Marianna Day Massey/ZUMA/Corbis
Media Library
CHAPTER 2 Media Library
AUDIO
Fallout from a contemporary experiment based on the Milgram study.
VIDEO
Qualitative v. Quantitative Research Methods
Steven Colbert on Validity Research
The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
CQ RESEARCHER
PACIFIC STANDARD MAGAZINE
JOURNAL
Validity and Reliability homicide studies
Unobtrusive Research in Criminal Justice
Participatory Research Methods in Skid Row Los Angeles
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IN THIS CHAPTER
Research and the Scientific Method
Doing Sociology: A Student’s Guide to Research
Sociology and You: Why Learn to Do Sociological Research?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
1. What kinds of research questions could one pose in order to gain a better understanding of sociological issues like bullying, long-term poverty, gang violence, or the high dropout rate in some high schools? What kinds of research methods would be appropriate for studying these issues?
2. What factors do you think affect the honesty of people’s responses to survey questions?
3. What makes a sociological research project ethical or unethical?
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RESEARCHING THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE U.S. PRISON BOOM
REUTERS/Lucy Nicholson
The United States imprisons more of its people than any other modern country on the planet. About 3% of U.S. adults are in the correctional system: “2.2 million people in prisons and jails, and an additional 4.8 million on probation or parole” (Goffman, 2014, p. xi). Data show that the climb in the prison population began in the 1970s and rose steeply in the 1980s, with significant numbers of poor men and women of color pulled into the criminal justice system, many for minor drug crimes and other nonviolent offenses. The effects of this “prison boom” are not only individual; mass incarceration has also had consequences for already struggling neighborhoods in urban America (see Figures 2.1a and 2.1b).
In On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City (2014), sociologist Alice Goffman writes that her work is an on-the-ground account of the U.S. prison boom: a close-up look at young men and women living in one poor and segregated Black community transformed by unprecedented levels of imprisonment and by the more hidden systems of policing and supervision that have accompanied them. Because the fear of capture and confinement has seeped into community members’ basic activities of daily living—work, family, romance, friendship, and even much-needed medical care—it is an account of a community on the run (p. xii).
Goffman explores the norms and practices that govern life in a neighborhood ravaged by economic and social marginality and the pervasive effects of the reality and threat of imprisonment. For example, in the absence of opportunities for legitimate employment, she notes the birth of a shadow economy that caters to the “fugitive life” she describes: Some wily entrepreneurs peddle “clean” urine to neighbors who are on parole and subject to drug testing. Goffman’s work is significant because it carefully examines the effects of the mass incarceration phenomenon on personal lives and relationships and the daily life of a community.
Goffman conducted research in the city of Philadelphia for six years, combining interviews with individuals working in the criminal justice system, including police and prison guards, and regular interactions with residents of her adopted neighborhood. She utilized participant and nonparticipant observation in gathering information about the social environment. Goffman’s work is a good example of qualitative sociological research, and she recognizes its potential significance to academic and policy debates. Utilizing a scientific approach and rigorous field research, Goffman is able to cast light on how neighborhoods and their residents, whether or not they are involved in criminal activity, understand and experience the powerful consequences of mass imprisonment.
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FIGURE 2.1A Imprisonment Rates in Selected Philadelphia Neighborhoods, 2008
SOURCE: Based on data from the The Justice Mapping Center.
FIGURE 2.1B Percentage of Non-Whites in Selected Philadelphia Neighborhoods, 2008
In this chapter, we examine the ways sociologists like Alice Goffman study the social world. First, we distinguish between sociological understanding and common sense. Then we discuss the key steps in the research process itself. We examine how sociologists test their theories using a variety of research methods, and, finally, we consider the ethical implications of doing research on human subjects.
SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE
Science is a unique way of seeing and investigating the world around us. The essence of the scientific method is straightforward: It is a process of gathering empirical (scientific and specific) data, creating theories, and rigorously testing theories. In sociological research, theories and empirical data exist in a dynamic relationship (Figure 2.2). Some research begins from general theories, which offer “big picture” ideas about social life: Deductive reasoning starts from broad theories but proceeds to break them down into more specific and testable hypotheses. Sociological hypotheses are ideas about the world that describe possible relationships between social phenomena. Some research begins from the ground up: Inductive reasoning starts from specific data, such as interviews or field notes, which may focus on a single community or event, and endeavors to identify larger patterns from which to derive more general theories.
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FIGURE 2.2 The Relationship Between Theory and Research
Sociologists employ the scientific method in both quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research, which is often done through methods such as large-scale surveys, gathers data that can be quantified and offers insight into broad patterns of social behavior (for example, the percentage of U.S. adults who use corporal punishment with their children) and social attitudes (for example, the percentage of U.S. adults who approve of corporal punishment) without necessarily delving into the meaning of or reasons for the identified phenomena. Qualitative research, such as that conducted by Alice Goffman, is characterized by data that cannot be quantified (or converted into numbers), focusing instead on generating in-depth knowledge of social life, institutions, and processes (for example, why parents in particular social groups are more or less likely to use spanking as a method of punishment). It relies on the gathering of data through methods such as focus groups, participant and nonparticipant observation, interviews, and archival research. Generally, population samples in qualitative research are small because they focus on in-depth understanding.
Personal experience and common sense about the world are often fine starting points for sociological research. They can, however, mislead us. In the 14th century, common sense suggested to people that the earth was flat; after all, it looks flat. Today, influenced by stereotypes and media portrayals of criminal behaviors, many people believe Black high school and college students are more likely than their White counterparts to use illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, crack, and heroin. But common sense misleads on both counts. The earth is not flat (as you know!), and Black high school and college students are slightly less likely than White students to use illegal drugs (Table 2.1).
Consider the following ideas, which many believe to be true, though all are false:
Common Wisdom:
I know women who earn more than their husbands or boyfriends. The gender wage gap is no longer an issue in the United States.
Sociological Research:
Data show that men as a group earn more than women as a group. For example, in the first quarter of 2014, men had a weekly median income of $872 compared to $722 for women for all full-time occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014f). According to statistical data, women earn about 82% of what men earn. This statistic compares all men and all women who work full-time and year-round. Reasons for the gap include worker characteristics (such as experience and education), job characteristics (such as hours required), devaluation of “women’s work” by society, and pay discrimination against female workers (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011; Reskin & Padavic, 2002). So while some women, of course, earn more than some men, the overall pattern of men outearning women remains in place today. This topic is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10.
Common Wisdom:
Homeless people are poor and lack adequate shelter because they do not work.
Sociological Research:
Some of the homeless cannot find work or are too disabled by mental or physical problems to work. Many, however, do work. Research suggests that about 44% of homeless adults work for pay (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2009b), and the U.S. Conference of Mayors (2011) reports that 15% of the homeless are regularly employed full- or part-time. However, low wages and poor benefits in the service industry, where many less educated people work, as well as a shortage of adequate housing options for low-income families, can make finding permanent shelter a challenge even for those who work for pay. To under stand how declining wages magnify the strain on low-income families, consider this: In many U.S. cities, to make ends meet, a household needs more than one full-time minimum-wage employee to afford the fair market rent price for a two-bedroom apartment (National Low Income Housing Coalition, 2009). The contemporary reality is that wages are not keeping up with the rate of inflation, which further adds to the economic hardships that low-income families endure. These topics are discussed in fuller detail in Chapter 7.
TABLE 2.1 Annual Prevalence Rate of Drug Use by 12th Graders, 2013.
Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E. & Miech, R.A. (2014). Demographic subgroup trends among adolescents in the use of various licit and illicit drugs, 1975–2013. Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper No. 81. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
| Milgram’s Experiment CLICK TO SHOW | |
| Fallout from a contemporary experiment based on the Milgram study. CLICK TO SHOW |
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© Bettmann/CORBIS
The Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments distinguishes between the “permanently supported homeless,” who have housing but are at risk due to extreme poverty and/or disability, and the “chronically homeless,” who are continually homeless for a year or more or at least four times in three years. Do you think that these categories fully encompass the homeless population?
Common Wisdom:
Education is the great equalizer. All children in the United States have the opportunity to get a good education. Low academic achievement is a personal failure.
Sociological Research:
Public education is free and open to all in the United States, but the quality of education can vary dramatically. Consider the fact that in many U.S. states and localities, a major source of public school funding is local property taxes, which constitute an average of about 44% of funding (state and federal allocations make up the rest). As such, communities with high property values have richer sources of funding from which to draw educational resources, while poor communities—even those with high tax rates—have more limited pools. As well, high levels of racial segregation persist in U.S. schools. In fact, Latino and Black students are more likely to be in segregated schools today than were their counterparts in earlier decades. Research shows a relationship between academic performance and class and racial segregation: Students who are not isolated in poor, racially segregated schools perform better on a variety of academic measures than those who are (Condron, 2009; Logan, Minca, & Adar, 2012). The problem of low academic achievement is complex, and no single variable can explain it. At the same time, the magnitude and persistence of this problem suggests that we are looking at a phenomenon that is a public issue rather than just a personal trouble. We discuss issues of class, race, and educational attainment further in Chapter 12.
Even deeply held and widely shared beliefs about society and social groups may be inaccurate—or more nuanced and complex than they appear on the surface. Until it is tested, common sense is merely conjecture. Careful research allows us to test our beliefs to gauge whether they are valid or merely anecdotal. From a sociological standpoint, empirical evidence is granted greater weight than common sense. By basing their decisions on scientific evidence rather than personal beliefs or common wisdom, researchers and students can draw informed conclusions and policy makers can ensure that policies and programs are data driven and maximally effective.
RESEARCH AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific theories answer questions about how and why scientific observations are as they are. A good scientific theory has the following characteristics:
• It is logically consistent. One part of the theory does not contradict another part.
• It can be disproved. If the findings contradict the theory, then we can deduce that the theory is wrong. While we can say that testing has failed to disprove the theory, however, we cannot assume the theory is “true” if testing confirms it. Theories are always subject to further testing, which may point to needed revisions, highlight limitations, or strengthen conclusions.
| Sentencing Reform for Drugs CLICK TO SHOW | |
| Qualitative v. Quantitative Research Methods CLICK TO SHOW |
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© Martin Ruetschi/Keystone/Corbis
Some research on bullying relies on self-reports, while other data come from peer reports. Recent research (Branson & Cornell, 2009) suggests that more than twice as many students (11%) were labeled bullies in peer reports than in self-reports (5%), highlighting the fact that any method of data collection has limitations.
Theories are made up of concepts, ideas that summarize a set of phenomena. Concepts are the building blocks of research and prepare a solid foundation for sociological work. Some of the key concepts in sociology are social stratification, social class, power, inequality, and diversity, which we introduced in the opening chapter.
In order to gather data and create viable theories, we need to define concepts in ways that are precise and measurable. A study of social class, for example, would need to begin with a working definition of that term. An operational definition of a concept describes the concept in such a way that we can observe and measure it. Many sociologists define social class in terms of dimensions such as income, wealth, education, occupation, and consumption patterns. Each of these aspects of class has the potential to be measurable. We may construct operational definitions in terms of qualities or quantities (Babbie, 1998; Neuman, 2000). In terms of qualities, we might say, for instance, that the “upper-middle class” is composed of those who have completed graduate or professional degrees, even though there may be a broad income spread between those with master’s degrees in English and those with master’s degrees in business administration. This definition is based on an assumption of class as a social position that derives from educational attainment. Alternatively, using quantity as a key measure, we might operationally define “upper class” as households with annual income greater than $150,000 and “lower class” as households with annual income of less than $20,000. This definition takes income as the preeminent determinant of class position, irrespective of education.
Consider a social issue of contemporary interest—bullying. Imagine that you want to conduct a research study of bullying to determine how many female middle schoolers have experienced bullying in the past academic year. You would need to begin with a clear definition of bullying that operationalizes the term. That is, in order to measure how many girls have experienced bullying, you would need to articulate what constitutes bullying. Would you include physical bullying? If so, how many instances of being pushed or punched would constitute bullying? Would you include cyberbullying? What kinds of behaviors would be included in that category? To study a phenomenon like bullying, it is not enough to assume that “we know it when we see it.” Empirical research relies on the careful and specific definition of terms and the recognition of how definitions and methods affect research outcomes.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
In studying social relationships, sociologists also need variables. A variable is a concept that can take on two or more possible values. For instance, sex can be male or female, work status can be employed or unemployed, and geographic location can be inner-city, suburbs, or rural area. We can measure variables both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitative variables include factors we can count, such as crime rates, unemployment rates, and drug use frequency. Qualitative variables are variables that express qualities and do not have numerical values. Qualitative variables might include physical characteristics, such as gender or eye color, or attitudinal characteristics, such as a parent’s preference for a private or public school or a commuter’s preference for riding public transportation or driving to work.
Sociological research often tries to establish a relationship between two or more variables. Suppose you want to find out whether more education is associated with higher earnings. After asking people about their years of schooling and their annual incomes, both of which are quantitative variables, you could estimate the degree of correlation between the two. Correlation—literally, “co-relationship”—is the degree to which two or more variables are associated with one another. Correlating the two variables “years of education” and “annual income” demonstrates that the greater the education, the higher the income (Figure 2.3). (Do you see the exception to that relationship? How might you explain it?)
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© Ed Kashi/VII/Corbis
Getting enough sleep is one factor that can help students maintain good grades in college. How would you design a research study to examine the question of which factors correlate most strongly with solid grades?
When two variables are correlated, we are often tempted to infer a causal relationship, a relationship between two variables in which one is the cause of the other. However, just because two variables are correlated, we cannot assume that one causes the other. For example, ice cream sales rise significantly during the summer, as does the homicide rate. These two events are correlated in the sense that both increase during the hottest months. However, because the sharp rise in ice cream sales does not cause rates of homicide to increase (nor, clearly, does the rise in homicide rates cause a spike in ice cream consumption), these two phenomena do not have a causal relationship. Correlation does not equal causation.
Sometimes an observed correlation between two variables is the result of a spurious relationship—that is, a correlation between two or more variables caused by another factor that is not being measured. In the example above, the common factor missed in the relationship is, in fact, the temperature. When it’s hot, more people want to eat ice cream. Studies also show that rising temperatures are linked to an increase in violent crimes—though after a certain temperature threshold (about 90 degrees), crimes wane again (Gamble & Hess, 2012). Among the reasons more violent crimes are committed in hot weather is the fact that people spend more time outdoors in social interactions when it is hot, which can lead to confrontations.
FIGURE 2.3 Correlation Between Education and Median Weekly Earnings in the United States, 2013
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2013). Education pays. Employment projections. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Let’s take another example that is close to home: Imagine that your school newspaper publishes a study concluding that coffee drinking causes poor test grades. The story is based on a survey of students that found those who reported drinking a lot of coffee the night before an exam scored lower than did their peers who had consumed little or no coffee. Having studied sociology, you wonder whether this relationship might be spurious. What is the “something else” that is not being measured here? Could it be that students who did not study in the days and weeks prior to the test and stayed up late the night before cramming—probably consuming a lot of coffee as they fought sleep—received lower test grades than did peers who studied earlier and got adequate sleep the night before the test? The overlooked variable, then, is the amount of studying students did in the weeks preceding the exam, and we are likely to find a positive correlation and evidence of causation in looking at time spent studying and grade outcomes.
Sociologists attempt to develop theories systematically by offering clear operational definitions, collecting unbiased data, and identifying evidence-based relationships between variables. Sociological research methods usually yield credible and useful data, but we must always critically analyze the results to ensure their validity and reliability and to check that hypothesized relationships are not spurious.
TESTING THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES
Once we have defined concepts and variables with which to work, we can endeavor to test a theory by positing a hypothesis. Hypotheses enable scientists to check the accuracy of their theories. For example, consider state-level data on obesity and poverty (Figures 2.4 and 2.5). Data from the U.S. Census Bureau for 2012 show that some positive correlation exists between obesity and poverty rates at the state level. A positive correlation is a relationship showing that as one variable rises or falls, the other does as well. The variables’ common trajectory suggests a possible relationship between poverty and obesity (Table 2.2), although, as we noted above, sociologists are quick to point out that correlation does not equal causation. Researchers are interested in creating and testing hypotheses to explain cases of positive correlation—they are also interested in explaining exceptions to the pattern of correlation between two (or more) variables.
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FIGURE 2.4 Self-Reported Obesity Rates by State, 2012
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control. (2011). Prevalence of self-reported obesity among U.S. adults. Behavior risk factor surveillance system. Washington, DC.
In fact, researchers have explored and hypothesized the relationship between poverty and obesity. Among the conclusions they have drawn is that living in poverty—and particularly living in poor neighborhoods—puts people at higher risk of obesity, though the risk is greater for women than for men (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012d; Hedwig, 2011; Smith, 2009). Among the factors that researchers have identified as contributing to a causal path between poverty and obesity are the lack of access to healthy food choices, the lack of access to safe and nearby spaces for physical exercise, and a deficit of time to cook healthy foods and exercise. They have also cited the stress induced by poverty. While the data cannot lead us to conclude decisively that poverty is a cause of obesity, research can help us to gather evidence that supports or refutes a hypothesis about the relationship between these two variables. We look at this issue in greater depth in Chapter 16.
In the case of a negative correlation, one variable increases as the other decreases. As we discuss later in Chapter 11, which focuses on the family and society, researchers have found a negative correlation between male unemployment and rates of marriage. That is, as rates of male unemployment in a community rise, rates of marriage in the community fall. Observing this relationship, sociologists have conducted research to test explanations for it (Edin & Kefalas, 2005; Wilson, 2010).
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